GJPP
Desktop Guide to
Good Juvenile Probation Practice
Two men talking
Case management »

Supervision considerations

While each youth you are working with should be treated as an individual, there are subpopulations of youth with shared experiences and may require specific considerations

Effective, developmentally appropriate case management practices that promote well-being require juvenile probation officers to approach each case with the understanding that each youth has a unique set of strengths and needs and that these characteristics should set the foundation for individualized service provision.

Considering the foundational goal of community supervision is to protect the community while promoting positive behavior change for the youth, it is imperative that case management practices be individualized and collaborative.

There is a wealth of guidance for effective case management practice including Probation Case Management Essentials for Youth in Placement and a Tip Sheet for youth in Juvenile Drug Court Programs, to name a couple. General guidance includes:

  • Use risk needs responsivity principles to conduct an assessment
  • Use the results to identify priority risks factors
  • Use the results of the validated risk assessment as the foundation for each youth’s supervision plan
  • Work with each youth and their family to set objectives that can lead to skill development
  • Monitor progress on goals through case management

A primary factor in effective interventions is building constructive relationships with the youth and their families. In order to engage youth and families, it is important to treat them with respect and work to establish a mutual understanding of what the term of probation will result in.  
Tips for engaging youth and families include:

  • Use youth first and strength based language
  • Let youth decide who they think their supportive adults should be[1]
  • Make an effort to interview youth and supportive adults in their home when feasible
  • Explain what probation is and what happens if the process is unsuccessful
  • Review the assessment results, explaining areas that the youth can improve
  • Model the behavior you want to see
  • Support the youths ventures into positive activities
  • Collaborate with the community to identify and facilitate support
  • Collaborate with other system stakeholders to facilitate access to necessary services
  • Consider helping facilitate a network for parents and caregivers with children in the system
  • Consider using Youth Advocate Programs (YAPs)[2]
  • Connect youth with appropriate services to address  their needs and achieve their goals
  • Consult youth and their support system to identify meaningful incentives
  • Use graduated responses
  • Work with placement providers to establish alternative and safe responses to behavior incidents that can be addressed without immediate referral to law enforcement or detention.

Subpopulation considerations

Pillars of transformation

For those youth that have specific needs, it is especially important to connect to connect to services that are trained in these specific areas. This can include things like trauma and ACEs as well. By using motivational interviewing, which helps build a rapport with families, you can identify youth that have needs beyond your abilities and refer to services that you know can help. This technique can also help you identify strengths to focus on.

While treating the specific needs outlined in the sections below, don’t forget that these youth still need services and approaches that are centered around the principles of adolescent brain development, as well as those that focus on specific needs.

More about the pillars and guiding values »

While each youth you are working with should be treated as an individual, there are subpopulations of youth with shared experiences and may require specific considerations.

The categorization of these subpopulations should not be used as a sole identifier for any youth or group.

Serious, violent, and/or chronic behavior

Youth that have contact with the juvenile justice system as a result of serious, violent, or chronic offenses are few in number but are likely to be in a probation officer’s care. Many researchers characterize “serious” offenses as those in the FBI’s Crime Index (murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson) and “violent” offenses as those in the Violent Crime Index (the first four of those listed). “Chronic” offending has been characterized as a certain number of offenses (5 or more) or a certain probability of reoffending. Because of the nature and seriousness of violent offenses, youth involved in these cases require special approaches.

Youth that have contact with the juvenile justice system for Index Offenses are usually around the age of 14, but these individuals are likely to have started showing signs of behavior issues around age 7 and serious delinquency by around age 12.[3] This means that there may be a history that is not a part of court documents that is important to address as a part of supervision programming. Prevention for these youth is difficult because there is no single predictor of whether or not these youth will reoffend or offend violently.[4]

The risk of reoffending for youth that commit serious and violent offenses is high following the months and years of an offense, but there is usually a steep decline in the risk of reoffending once the youth enters into early adulthood.[5] Those youth that have multiple offenses are likely to have a higher rate of reoffending and are likely to have a high reoffending risk as they approach adulthood, causing entrance into the adult criminal justice system.[6]

Additional considerations

  • Plan interventions aimed at early prevention through community programming and cross-systems collaboration that focus on the array of factors and not on just one aspect of the youth’s life.
  • Suggest individual counseling if you are in touch with other service providers or have the appropriate certifications[7]
  • Refer to programs that focus on strengthening family[8]
  • Refer to programs that use graduated responses[9]

The most effective programs are those that utilize CBT, teach interpersonal training, and target families.[10][11] Listed below are some of the programs found to be effective for reducing recidivism in youth that commit violent offenses and those who chronically offend:

  • Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy approaches (CBT)[12][13]
  • Interpersonal skills training[14]
  • Aggression Replacement Training
  • Multisystemic Therapy (for those with access to MST Services)[15][16]
  • Parenting Wisely Program[17]
  • Functional Family Therapy (FFT)[18][19][20]
  • Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC)[21][22]
  • Early Self-Control Improvement Programs for Children

For more information visit:

Mental health needs

Every person’s mental health affects how they think, understand and express their emotions, handle stress, relate to others and their community, and make decisions.[23] When someone experiences a mental health issue, it can reduce their ability to function within the rules of society.  Many studies have indicated a large portion of youth in the juvenile justice system have a diagnosable mental health disorder.[24][25][26] Sometimes mental health issues can be a contributing factor when youth engage in behaviors that could require intervention from the juvenile justice system.  Some youth who experience mental health issues commit crimes, but not all youth who commit crimes experience mental health issues.

A validated mental health screening is an important part of an intake process, detention decision-making, pre-disposition reporting, and case planning. Whenever possible, youth with identified  mental health needs should be diverted into community-based programs that will address their underlying problems. Access to treatment services and positive social supports are vital to addressing mental health needs.[27]

A validated screening tool should be administered to all youth on community supervision. If the screen indicates a need, you should refer the youth to a treatment provided to ensure the youth is formally assessed using a validated mental health assessment by a licensed professional to determine a diagnosis and the level of care needed.

Additional considerations

For youth who have mental health needs, it is important to coordinate with their treatment team to assist youth in achieving both their treatment and supervision goals.[28]

  • Ensure that all youth are screened for mental health needs and referred to a provider if screen indicates further assessment is needed.
  • If a youth violates a condition of probation be sure to consider whether their mental health had a role in their behavior
  • Talk with their treatment provider. While a provider cannot share personal information with you, they may be able to offer some insight into the behavior
  • And they may help identify if the level of care needs to be reassessed
  • Encourage the youth to identify supports for when a crisis arises
  • Have them identify and save the phone number of a trusted friend or relative
  • Provide other resources such as:
    • The non-emergency number for the local police department
    • The Crisis Text Line: 741741
    • The National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 1-800-273-TALK (8255).
“I have a youth that has been formally diagnosed with Fetal Alcohol Encephalophagy, which is in the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome family. He has organic brain damage that impacts his ability to process information, manage emotions and control his impulses. This youth additionally experienced post traumatic stress disorder, autism spectrum disorder with accompanying intellectual impairments (learning disorders and working memory deficits), and borderline intellectual functioning. He was arrested on a charge of assault in the second degree, which with no criminal history still required commitment of 15–36 weeks in the institution if it was adjudicated as charged. It should be noted that no other parties were physically hurt, and the youth’s intentions during the incident were to harm himself and no one else. He was not brought to the hospital by law enforcement as he requested, but to detention, where because of the charge, he was required to stay until his court hearing at minimum. The youth had a suicidal incident in detention and was placed on watch before later being removed when his emotions passed.

He was evaluated for competency and found to competent. A deal was ultimately reached and the youth man plead guilty to a charge of assault 3 and was granted a deferred which allows him to have the charge removed from his record if he follows probation rules. The stated wanted 12 months of supervision because of the serious nature of the original charge. I initially advocated for no supervision as the young man is receiving mental health treatment services which is what he needs now and for his future. There are very minimal programs probation can offer the young man as well because of his cognitive impairments. The young man was ultimately ordered 4 months of supervision on his Deferred.

It may appear on surface that the youth prevailed in the at he did not go to the institution and received far less probation time than what the state had wanted. However, this young man did not need probation. He is not a criminal. He is a young man that struggles with mental health and behavioral challenges because of organic brain complications that he can’t control and didn’t choose. By ordering this young man to probation we have criminalized his mental health. Furthermore, he is now at risk for further entrenchment by being involved and supervised by our system. Now that the court has oversight, he can receive violations for behavior related to his mental health and could potentially lose the Deferred which would result in a felony assault conviction on his record, which will be a detriment to his already complicated and challenging future.

This type of case is unfortunately not all that uncommon. I have supervised many youth with cognitive delays and severe mental health challenges that have been ordered probation, when really they need increased mental health support and treatment and it almost always results in increased contact with the court, increased time in detention and criminal history.”—Probation Administrator, Washington

Additional resources

  • Cocozza, J.J., Skowyra, K. R., & Shufelt, J. L. (2010). Addressing the Mental Health Needs of Youth in Contact With the Juvenile Justice System in System of Care Communities: An Overview and Summary of Key Issues. Washington, DC: Technical Assistance Partnership for Child and Family Mental Health.
  • Bowser, D., Henry F., B, Wasserman, G., Knight, D., Gardner S., Krupka, K., Grossi, 4., Cawood, M., Wiley, T., and Robertson, A. (2018) Comparison of the Overlap between Juvenile Justice Processing and Behavioral Health Screening, Assessment and Referral.
  • Meservey, F., Skowyra, K. (2015). Caring For Youth with Mental Health Needs In the Juvenile Justice System: Improving Knowledge and Skills. National Center for Mental Health And Juvenile Justice. Research and Program Brief V2.2.
  • National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice (2018). Mental Health Training for Juvenile Justice. (2018).
  • Behavioral Health Screening, Assessment and Referral. J Appl Juv Justice Serv. 2018 ; 2018: 97–125.

Substance use needs

Research indicates that a set of dynamic risk factors are consistently associated with youth substance use.[29] These factors include individual perception of substance use, emotional problems, and social skill deficits along with limited adult supervision, inconsistent discipline, and substance using peers.

It is vital to understand that not all substance use constitutes a disorder that requires intervention. Adolescence is a time of exploration and that includes the use of marijuana and alcohol. However, some substance use by youth is more problematic, meaning it is consistent and interferes with their life (e.g., further involvement with the justice system, school-related failures, etc.).

Screening, assessments, and interviews with youth on community supervision will help to identify if a youth has a history of or is currently using drugs or alcohol. Youth should be screened to determine if there is need for further assessment. And when indicated as necessary, an assessment designed to identify a substance use disorder should be administered by a treatment provider to assist in determining the level of care needed. For each youth on community supervision, needs assessments should include information on their: use of substances, criminogenic needs, mental health needs, protective factors, strengths, familial drug use disorders, and other familial needs.[30] If a substance use disorder has been identified as a risk area, you should take steps to have the youth formally assessed using a valid substance use assessment to determine a diagnosis and the level of care needed.

Additional considerations

  • Youth with identified substance abuse needs should be referred to treatment services.  
  • Screen each youth for substance abuse upon referral  
  • Refer the youth to a Juvenile Drug Treatment Court program if available
  • Do not expect perfection
  • Understand that return to substance use is likely to happen
  • Respond to any return to substance use in ways that consider the youth’s risk, needs, and responsivity[31]
  • Refrain from responding with overly punitive measures (e.g. revoking probation)

Additional resources

  • Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Comprehensive Case Management for Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series. No. 27. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 15-4215. Rockville, MD: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2000
  • Thomas, D., Torbet, P., and Deal, T. (2011). Implementing Effective Case Management Strategies: A Guide for Probation Administrators. Technical Assistance to the Juvenile Court Bulletin. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice.
  • Torbet, P. Griffin, P. (2002) Desktop Guide to Good Juvenile Probation Practice. Washington DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
  • Thomas, D., and Zawacki, S.  (2001) National Survey of Chief Juvenile Probation Officers: Integrated Substance Abuse Treatment Networks. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice.

Learning or developmental needs

Education is an important part of a youth’s day to day life. School connectedness is a protective factor, promoting successful life outcomes for youth and buffering against negative influences. Some youth require additional learning support in the classroom, including behavioral and emotional supports. Not all youth who need these supports will be diagnosed before you meet them and their learning needs may not be being addressed. It is important to be familiar with common symptoms or indicators that may help you identify the need for further screening which can lead to their needs being addressed. JPOs are not responsible for diagnosing these needs, but it is important for probation officers to understand what learning or developmental needs a youth has to be sure that interventions are the supervision plan are reasonable considering the youth’s abilities and to ensure that accommodations are provided if necessary.

Additional considerations

There are practical methods a probation officer can use when supervising youth in need of learning supports:[32]

  • Talk with the youth’s supportive adults to identify if a youth has diagnosed learning needs and is attending school under an IEP to begin appropriate coordination of services/decision-making with the school.
  • Coordinate planning with school personnel.
  • Obtain necessary school IEP information
  • If a youth does not have an IEP but a learning disability problem is suspected, work with their family and the school to help the youth get an official screening to determine need using a standardized screening tool.
  • Keep instructions basic and simple.
    • Seek frequent feedback from the youth and ask them to repeat instructions in their own words rather than asking if they understand.
    • When specific tasks need to be learned, such as riding a bus to an appointment, rehearse and practice the task rather than simply explaining the bus schedule.
    • Practice frequent repetition of material to be learned, spaced out over short learning intervals.
    • Provide visual reminders. Instead of writing out times and dates for meetings or appointments, provide them with a calendar each month or week on which the appointments are clearly marked.
  • Ensure goals are feasible
    • Work with the youth, supportive adults, and school personnel, service providers to set goals that the youth can achieve.
    • Avoid school related goals that are not realistic. For instance, not all youth can get “straight A’s.” The goal should be improving their grades incrementally.
    • Avoid goals that rely on lofty or abstract accomplishments and ensure goals are practical and tangible.
  • Provide positive reinforcement as frequently as possible.  Recognition for progress and appropriate behavior can serve as a powerful motivator for continued behavioral change. Even just a “good job” can go a long way.
  • Encourage parents to participate in and facilitate meaningful opportunities to participate in education at school and home.[33] This can be done by engaging in activities that can help build skills (e.g. Pictionary, trivia, crossword puzzles, etc.),  asking about things they learned today, and setting up reward systems for small achievements in school. For instance, if a youth attends school for a day without a behavioral problem, they get extra time doing something they enjoy or a day out with their parent or friend on the weekend.
  • Allow extra time to complete tasks if you think it’s necessary, but be sure that this does not prolong their time on probation by adding time for goal completion.
  • If a youth is struggling, consider if there are environmental factors that are getting in the way or learning needs that are not being met.[34]
    • Is the case plan written in an understandable reading level?
    • Are there unrealistic timeframes or expectations?

Additional resources

Dual status

Youth that are or have been involved in both the child welfare system and the juvenile justice system are referred to as dual status youth. These youth have a specific set of needs because they are not only dealing with challenges related to delinquency, but also problems associated with child maltreatment. Research in jurisdictions across the country has found that between half and three-quarters of the youth that are referred to juvenile courts have had some contact with the child welfare system. Youth that have been or are currently involved in the child welfare system are much more likely to become involved with the juvenile justice system than youth not involved in child welfare and they are more likely to become involved at a young age. Because of this, these youth are more likely to engage in more serious behaviors.[36][37] This poses a unique challenge for probation officers in jurisdictions where there is not a collaborative relationship between the juvenile justice and child welfare systems.[38]

Guidebook for Juvenile Justice and Child Welfare System Coordination and Integration: A Framework for Improved Outcomes, 3rd Edition
Dual Status Youth - Technical Assistance Workbook

Tips/considerations

Common challenges of multi-system collaboration can include things such as:[39]

  • Lack of cross-system coordination and integration
  • Competing mandates and missions
  • Scarce intervention and treatment resources
  • Ability to lawfully exchange data and relevant case planning information while protecting confidentiality and privacy provisions of the youth and family
  • Multiple data systems that house relevant information that are unable to “speak to one another” thereby limiting system performance and youth outcomes measurement and reporting

Some ways you can overcome dual system case challenges include:[40]

  • Be aware that both systems (juvenile justice and child welfare) have issues with racial/ethnic disparities, the role of trauma, and family engagement.[41] You can help correct these issues by ensuring that you treat all youth equitably, by using trauma-responsive practices, and engaging families whenever possible.
  • Intervene through established procedural methods that prescribe specific cross-system coordination practices
  • Ensure multi-system case planning includes requirements for identification of prosocial connections and positive youth development principles. Let youth have a say in who they think their supportive adults should be[42]
  • Ensure routine inclusion of youth and family voice in all multi-disciplinary and court procedures. Engage supportive adults in team meetings.
  • Create a network for parents and caregivers with children in the system
  • Prioritize the stabilization of the youth’s best home placement situation. Consider alternatives to group homes which may not be equipped to handle the range of challenges presented by these cases. Specially-trained foster care, living with a family member with adequate support, and/or appropriate independent living programs, are often better placements for dual system youth.[43]

If you feel like changes need to be made that are beyond your purview, meet with your supervisor/administration and be a catalyst for that change. Here are some ways that your organization should be collaborating with the child welfare system:[44]

  1. Clarify the criteria and determine the prevalence of dual system youth in your jurisdiction
  2. Develop clearly stated goals for your practices related to dual system youth
  3. Develop and implement workable procedures for accurate and timely assessment/screening, case tracking, data collection, evaluation, and improvement
  4. Identify and implement collaborative procedures and protocols
  5. Encourage and prioritize cross-agency support and routine communication
  6. Develop communication and information-sharing agreements/MOUs between both agencies
  7. Provide training and cross-training for both agencies
  8. Implement joint case planning between probation officers and social workers[45]
  9. Consider the feasibility of a consolidated or coordinated court docket for dual system youth.[46]
  10. Obtain commitment from JPOs and child welfare workers
  11. Encourage strong leadership and support from judges, administrators, and supervisor

Dual system youth often face adverse trajectories compared to youth on probation that do not have cross-system involvement. They can also present serious cost, resource, and workload challenges. Effective intervention is possible and may reduce the likelihood of subsequent problems.[47][48][49][50] Some positive outcomes of cross-collaboration practices include fewer petitions to juvenile court and youth becoming more involved in prosocial activities.[51]

To see how well you and your organization have implemented practices for dual system youth, see the rubric that OJJDP has developed that lists 11 different domains and different levels of

For more information visit:

Additional resources

  • NJJN (National Juvenile Justice Network). 2016. Snapshot: Dual-Status Youth and Federal Initiatives. Washington, DC: NJJN.
  • Halemba, G., & Siegel, G.  2011. Doorways to Delinquency: Multi-System Involvement of Delinquent Youth in King County (WA). Models for Change, NCJJ.

In need of shelter

Some youth that come under your care may be experiencing homelessness or housing insecurities. Youth in such circumstances may be youth cited for loitering or being out past curfew because they have no place to go, and others commit offenses of survival in order to be able to eat or live.[52][53][54] Some youth also enter into the juvenile justice system with a home, but if they are put in detention, once they are released it is possible they have lost their place in their foster care home or cannot live with their families because of Section 8 restrictions.[55][56][57]

Youth experiencing homelessness or housing insecurities may not self-identify as homeless which may complicate intake procedures should they become involved in the juvenile justice system. For this reason, building positive relationships with youth should begin at intake. By building a positive relationship with youth, you can provide services that lead to safe, stable, and  permanent housing.    

Additional considerations

For those that have been recently involved with the juvenile justice system these are the recommendations:[58]

  • Address the needs of youth that are dual system by collaborating with the child welfare system
  • Encourage the youth and their family to participate in family mediation or group counselling
  • Connect the youth/family to housing services
  • Connect the youth/family to employment services
  • Understand that some actions are done out of survival, such as loitering, stealing, etc.
    • Disposition recommendations should consider less restrictive options as to not further criminalize these actions[59]
    • If a youth is on your caseload and violates due to a survival crime, consider the underlying reasons and try to address those concerns before filing a violation of probation or revoking probation

Services appropriate for youth in need of shelter include:[60]

  • Case management that addresses, transition and re-entry plans, long-term housing stability, medical needs, dental needs, mental health challenges, and identifies trusted family members and/or adults (see: OJJDP Re-Entry Tool Kit & CJJ Principles of Change)
  • Home, Together: A federal strategic plan to prevent and end homlessness, is a service that requires little to no treatment preconditions and behavior contingencies, which allows youth in need of permanent housing a place to go with no barriers.
  • Get youth connected to community-based program that offers wrap-around supports. This may be done by getting youth connected to coordinated entry. Coordinated Entry  standardizes the way individuals and families at risk of or experiencing homelessness are assessed for and referred to housing and services needed for housing stability.
  • Probation Officers should be aware of programs that may be connected to the local jurisdiction’s Continuum of Care Program which works to quickly rehouse individuals experiencing homelessness while minimizing trauma and dislocation caused by homelessness.
  • Basic Center Program: Provides youth up to age 18 with emergency shelter, food, clothing, counseling, and referrals for health care
  • HHS Runaway and Homeless Youth Street Outreach Program:Funds street outreach workers to build relationships with youth who are experiencing homelessness and provide support services that aim to move youth into stable housing)
  • Transitional Living Program
  • Maternity Group Homes for Pregnant and Parenting Youth Program
  • McKinney-Vento Education for Homeless Children and Youth Program or Education for Homeless Children and Youth Grants
  • HUD Homeless and Housing Programs
  • John H. Chafee Foster Care Independence Program (CFCIP)
  • Education and Training Vouchers Program for Youths Aging out of Foster Care (ETV)

For more information visit:

Additional resources

LGBQA-GNCTI

A comprehensive understanding of the population of youth who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, questioning, asexual, gender nonconforming, transgender, or intersex (LGBQA-GNCTI) in the juvenile justice system is limited due to the availability of data however, research indicates LGBQA_GNCTI youth are overrepresented.[61] While there are sites that have started to collect data on sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression (SOGIE), most youth-serving systems have not started this practice. Nonetheless, it is important to understand that everybody has a SOGIE and that collecting this information is necessary to ensure that the safety, privacy, and dignity of all youth are affirmed.

When working with youth or discussing SOGIE, there are important terms and concepts that you can familiarize yourself with. Here are resources with glossaries: NYU UCDavis

Additional considerations

Probation officers should make an effort to understand each youth’s SOGIE and any circumstances that affect their well-being. Your agency may have specific practice guidelines for addressing the many ways that race and SOGIE shape young people’s lives, but there are some general practices that can help you build positive relationships with everyone you serve.

  • For information on terms to avoid visit Words That Hurt
  • Ask all youth about their SOGIE[62]
  • Discuss SOGIE normally.  Everyone has a SOGIE and youth are generally comfortable talking about these aspects of their lives.
  • Share your pronouns. Your pronouns might be "he/him/his", "they/theirs”, or "she/her/hers.”
  • Accept answers about youth gender expression, even if it does not match societal expectations.
  • Address each youth according to their gender identification and pronouns.
  • Be familiar with what terms are derogatory/hurtful and do not use them toward youth and others.
  • Do not ask GNC-transgender youth about surgery
  • Ask all youth about conflicts at home and at school.  Pay special attention to whether SOGIE or race lie under any identified conflicts. 
  • If you are considering placing a youth in a gender-specific program, consider their gender identity over their birth sex and consult with them.[63]
  • Understand that conditions of probation may interfere with a youth’s mental and or physical health and safety. For example, a youth may run away due to unsafe or unwelcoming home life circumstances. Research indicates that LGBQ-GNCT youth are more likely to have home and social circumstances that put them at higher risk to commit survival crimes. These crimes include running away and involvement with sex work and other informal economies. They may not attend school due to harassment based on their SOGIE
  • Do not impose conditions of probation that will interfere with their mental or physical health and safety or their ability to successfully complete their probation.

For information about LGBQA-GNTCI state protections, please visit Lambda Legal.

Additional resources

Missing or exploited

The two most prominent types of exploitation are labor exploitation and sexual exploitation. Labor exploitation includes trafficking of youth  by “the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery.”[64] Sexual Exploitation can include commercial sexual services such as prostitution, pornography, and sex tourism and those trafficked are often coerced or forced into exploitation.[65]

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) identified risk factors for exploitation.[66]

  • Poverty
  • Gender Inequality
  • Unemployment
  • Sexual abuse and physical
  • Health/mental health problems
  • Police/political corruption
  • High crime
  • Lack of support systems
  • Substance abuse
  • Learning disabilities
  • Loss of parent/caregiver
  • Running away
  • Sexual identity issues

Additional considerations

Pay special attention to youth that are referred to court for running away, youth that receive loitering charges, youth that have committed more serious offenses as a result of being in need of shelter, youth that have been referred to court for sex work, and youth who have ran away from placement. These youth should be diverted and receive specialized services because of their risk of becoming missing or exploited or as a result of exploitation that has already happened.  In many cases, these youth are survivors but are being treated as offenders in court. Treating these youth as a harmed party is a better way to address their needs.

Programs and services for these youth should focus upon:[67]

  • Safe, stable housing[68] (protective shelters may be an option)
  • Collaboration with the child welfare system[69][70]
  • Hope for a better situation and personal growth of the youth that includes regaining control
  • Helping the youth with identity challenges as a result of their experiences
  • Educational and career support
  • Involvement with a mentor that has training in this field or is a survivor of sexual exploitation themselves (remote services may be needed for this service)
  • Support within the community

Dos and Don'ts when building relationships with youth who are missing and exploited

Dos Don’ts
Establish yourself as a safe person—let them know what you can and can’t do for them so that you can build trust[71] Judging
Ask youth about their needs Be in youth’s personal space
Understand that youth may be more comfortable with a certain gender because of their experiences Use detention as an intervention without trying other options[72]
Seek training about exploitation[73] Expect their ACEs are not relevant
Be personable and engaged[74] Act uncaringly or distant
Barrier[75] How to overcome it
Identifying and meeting needs of youth Risk assessment, building meaningful relationships, training in trauma-informed care practices
Limited access to resources Collaboration with other systems, data collection and use to support the need for resources
Size of community/service area Remote services, data collection and use to support the need for resources
Providing services that address trafficking-specific needs Remote services, data collection and use to support the need for resources
Cultural and Language barriers Culturally responsive programming, Interpreter (remote services if needed)
Legal issues Help connect youth and their families to a lawyer (public defender if needed)
Confidentiality Build trusting relationship, collaborating with other systems
Lack of awareness and training Identify and advocate for training through department
Safety Concerns  

For more information visit:

Additional resources

Aging out of the juvenile justice system

Adolescent development and brain science research has taught us that the human brain does not fully develop until a person is 25; the last part to fully develop in fact is the prefrontal cortex which means that the biological capacity to control impulses is lacking until 25. This has direct implications for youth introduced to the justice system and especially those aged 16–25. These youth have an increased risk of involvement with the adult criminal justice system, a lower likelihood of achieving educational goals, a lower likelihood of becoming employed, and an increased risk of being impoverished and struggling to maintain housing.[76][77] The justice system faces additional challenges setting these youth up for success once they leave the system given these risks associated with failure.

In order to effectively assist these youth in maintaining the lessons and positive behavior that has been fostered throughout their case, it is imperative that probation officers work with youth, families, and communities to establish connections to services and identify support systems as a part of the case plan. It is recommended to reassess a youth’s risks at case closure which can help to identify areas that may need continued attention.

Additional considerations

Throughout the case, the services and lessons provided for the youth will have tackled a monumental first step in preparation for their case closure and future success, but there are important things to consider, especially for older youth who may not be eligible for the services provided through the system.

  • Emphasize goals that help build skills for adulthood[78]
  • Create and utilize programs for older youth that focus on success in adulthood
  • Consider how any reentry and aftercare services used in your jurisdiction can be used for these youth
  • Talk to them and their support system about their accomplishments
  • Talk to them  and their support system about their plans for the future
  • Connect the youth to domain-specific (Mental health, Substance use treatment, healthcare, educational and vocational services, housing, transportation, pregnancy/parenting) services where appropriate. For each domain relevant to the youth:
    • Speak to the youths current provider
    • Determine if continuation of services are needed
    • Work with your community to identify services that may be available
    • Talk to the youth about their plans for each domain and identify potential backup plans
    • Review the youth’s support system with them to ensure they know who to turn to for help
    • Talk to the youth about any concerns they have in any of the domains relevant to them
    • Have youth identify  goals they would like to achieve by 25[79] and short term steps to get there
  • Mandatory transition planning for placements and for transitioning out of the juvenile justice system

For more information

Additional resources

Problematic sexual behaviors (PSBs)

Youth engage in about a third of sexual offenses known to law enforcement. As a whole, these youth make up a small proportion of youth served in juvenile justice system but it is likely you will have some of these youth on your caseload. When serving this population, it is imperative to remember:

  • These youth are mostly male, and will likely be between the ages of 12 and 14[80] at the time of the offense. Adolescence is the peak risk period to commit an illegal sexual behavior. Puberty is full of difficulty with impulse control, decision making, and managing emotions and arousal.
  • Youth who engage in these behaviors are significantly different than adults. Youth don’t think about the consequences to their actions in the same way as adults because their brains are not yet fully developed.[81][82]
  • Most youth who engage in illegal sexual behavior do so based on situational factors and availability.
    • It is extremely rare for youth to have a sexual based disorder. Instead, most youth have poor decision making and judgement.[83]
    • Most cases don’t involve outright violent sexual behavior, but instead is less mature in planning. This does not discount the potential harm to the victim from any form of sexual abuse and misconduct.
  • It important to know that is very unlikely that these youth will commit another sexual offense[84][85] after they are caught and justice involved. They are often at risk for other delinquency and this should be addressed in their case plans.
  • Factors that contribute to youth who engage illegal sexual behavior include a lack of supervision, exposure to pornography, past victimization, experiences of family violence, and family instability. Some youth have been sexually abused, but not most. Youth may have learning, social skill delays, or present with co-occurring mental health conditions (e.g., ADHD, depression).
  • Recidivism of sexual offenses is low, approximately a 4% sexual recidivism rate.[86]
  • Successful response to youth with illegal sexual behavior requires positive engagement of their caregivers.

Tips/considerations

Checklist for processing these cases:

  • ✔ Meet with family and discuss seriousness of the situation, but also plant seeds of hope.
  • ✔ If victim is in the home, ensure child is evaluated to determine if youth with Problematic Sexual Behaviors (PSB) can remain in the home or needs to stay out of the home until additional work is done.
  • ✔ Ensure an initial safety plan is established and communicated with the treatment provider
  • ✔ Establish a treatment provider to conduct initial assessment on youth with PSB to determine if community services are viable. Determine if kinship or other living placement is needed using 1-3.
  • ✔ If a youth needs to move, allow #3 to guide your decision for whether increased level of care is needed.

Programming should focus upon establishing active safety plans while using a strengths-based model that involves the family and the youth working together to address understanding of laws, healthy relationships and communication, impact and restitution for the behavior within their social network. Research documents that treatments rooted in reinforcing healthy behavior, active collaboration with the caregivers and others, and providing a safe and genuine atmosphere are most effective. Each case is unique and requires individualization based on the family and youth strengths, risk factors, and needs. Programs that have been found effective for this population include:

  • Multisystemic Therapy (MST)[87][88]
  • MST-Problematic Sexual Behaviors (PSB)[89]
  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)[90]
  • Restorative justice approaches[91]
  • For youth that have symptoms of post-traumatic stress may be best served through treatment for trauma, for instance Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy[92]

When giving disposition recommendations to the judge, make sure to recommend approaches that do not include the Sex Offender Registry. The use of the Sex Offender Registry for youth is found to be extremely harmful[93][94][95][96][97][98] and includes suicide, homelessness, difficulty attending school, unemployment, and increased risk of being the victim of sexual abuse as collateral consequences.[99] Use of registry is also not found to have an impact on youth sexual recidivism or decreases in new cases of youth who engage in illegal sexual behavior.

Treatment should be developmentally appropriate and may involve practicing skills, videos, and other activities to increase learning. Incorporation of things like early trauma processing and safety planning may be necessary for some youth.[100] Safety planning should include a plan for community safety and for youth’s safety.

Additional resources

Immigration

Privacy is absolutely imperative for those youth that have immigrated to the United States. It is important to review your state’s privacy laws in order to understand what records can be shared. Records are being increasingly shared with Immigration and Customs Enforcement personnel, which can be used in immigration and possibly removal proceedings. For these youth it is imperative that cases are not bound over into adult court because the immigration consequences become more severe. These youth and their families should have an immigration attorney during youth court proceedings to ensure they are well represented.[101]

Once a case is completed, the family can have the record sealed or expunged in order to keep information from being shared with the federal government that can be used in immigration proceedings, but before this happens information may have already been shared. In this case it is important for the youth to disclose the incident so that they do not engage in fraud.[102]

If a youth that you are providing services for is undocumented and has been maltreated by a parent, the youth may be eligible for Special Immigrant youth Status. Granting this status requires a youth court order and must be done before the youth is out of the court’s jurisdiction.

The Noncitizen Youth in the Juvenile Justice System: 2018 Update lists the following policy recommendations for those in the field that work with youth that are noncitizens:[103]

  • Do not enforce ICE detainer or hold requests: Compliance with detainers—a tool used by the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)—is voluntary. Several federal court decisions have found key aspects of ICE’s detainer system unconstitutional and in violation of federal statutes creating liability for local law enforcement.
  • Do not violate state confidentiality laws in sharing information with ICE: Many states have confidentiality laws that protect information about youth in the juvenile justice system, often with no exception for federal immigration officials.
  • Do help noncitizen youth obtain lawful immigration status: Juvenile justice officials can help noncitizen youth by connecting them with local legal services providers for immigration legal assistance. If a youth is able to gain legal status, the youth could work lawfully and pursue higher education and other services and benefits, contributing significantly to the youth’s successful transition into adulthood.
  • Do continue to pursue JDAI reforms: For 25 years, JDAI has aimed to keep young people from being unnecessarily separated from their families and communities. This work includes reducing reliance on locked detention, since even a short stay in detention can cause young people serious harm in areas like education, employment and mental health. Less reliance on detention also keeps noncitizen youth out of the deportation pipeline.

In this webinar from the Annie E. Casey Foundation, learn about current federal policies on immigration enforcement and hear practice recommendations for working with immigrant youth.

Tribal considerations

Screenshot of webinar list
Webinars from the Tribal Community Corrections Support Center

Native Americans that are part of a tribe have the ability to be prosecuted in tribal, state, and federal courts. The jurisdiction in many cases will depend on state law, and it is possible in some places for youth to be prosecuted in both a state and tribal court for the same crime.[104] In state and federal courts, youth have the right to due process and to counsel, but in tribal courts, indigent youth do not have the right to have an attorney provided for them.[105] If you are a probation officer to tribal youth, keep these different rights in mind and be sure to check your state laws in order to best understand jurisdiction and your role in the process.

In order to be effective service-providers to Native American youth, it is important that probation officers coordinate culturally appropriate, collaborative, and strength-based services for these youth in order to reduce disparities and provide them with the best services possible. The risk factors that are prevalent in tribal communities are historical trauma, violence, suicide, substance use, and lack of cultural instruction.[106] Even though these risk factors are present and Native Americans are overrepresented in the justice system,[107] protective factors such as family and culture can help justice-involved youth create a better life.

Tribal communities’ methods vary, similar to different counties in non-tribal probation,[108] and it is important for tribal and non-tribal probation officers to respect tribes' culture and practices. Every tribe is different. Even with these differences, those that are tribal youth probation officers have many of the same duties, and evidence-based services presented in this Desktop Guide still apply (individualized services, RNR, positive reinforcement, graduated sanctions and incentives, etc.).[109]

The American Probation and Parole Association have recorded training webinars for matters involving tribal communities.

References

  1. Annie E. Casey Foundation (AECF) (2013). Case Planning for Healthy Development. St. Louis, MO: Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative.
  2. Harvell, S.H., Love, H., Pelletier, E., & Warnberg, C. (2018). Bridging research and practice in juvenile probation: Rethinking strategies to promote long-term change.
  3. Loeber, R. & Farrington, D.P. (1998). Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
  4. National Research Council (2013).  Reforming Juvenile Justice: A Developmental Approach. (pp. 139–182) Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
  5. Brame, R., Mulvey, E.P., Schubert, C.A., & Piquero, A.R. (2018). Recidivism in a sample of serious adolescent offenders. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34, 167–187.
  6. Brame, R., Mulvey, E.P., Schubert, C.A., & Piquero, A.R. (2018). Recidivism in a sample of serious adolescent offenders. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34, 167–187.
  7. Brame, R., Mulvey, E.P., Schubert, C.A., & Piquero, A.R. (2018). Recidivism in a sample of serious adolescent offenders. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34, 167–187.
  8. Brame, R., Mulvey, E.P., Schubert, C.A., & Piquero, A.R. (2018). Recidivism in a sample of serious adolescent offenders. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34, 167–187.
  9. Brame, R., Mulvey, E.P., Schubert, C.A., & Piquero, A.R. (2018). Recidivism in a sample of serious adolescent offenders. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34, 167–187.
  10. Loeber, R. & Farrington, D.P. (1998). Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
  11. OJJDP (1998). Serious and Violence Juvenile Offenders. Juvenile Justice Bulletin.
  12. Milkman, H. B., & Wanberg, K. W. (2007). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment: A review and discussion for corrections professionals. Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections.
  13. Mendel, R.A. (2000). Less Hype, More Help: Reducing Juvenile Crime, What Works—and What Doesn’t. Washington, DC: American Youth Policy Forum.
  14. Loeber, R. & Farrington, D.P. (1998). Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
  15. Henggeler, S.W., Schoenwald, S.K., Borduin, C.M., Rowland, M.D., and Cunningham, P.B. (1998). Multisystemic Treatment of Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.
  16. Schaeffer, C. M., & Borduin, C. M. (2005). Long-Term Follow-Up to a Randomized Clinical Trial of Multisystemic Therapy With Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 445–453.
  17. The California-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare (CEBC) (2018). Parenting Wisely.
  18. Alexander, J., and Parsons, B. (1973). Short-term behavioral intervention with delinquent families: Impact on family process and recidivism. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 81(3), 219-225.
  19. Barton, C., Alexander, J.F., Waldron, H., Turner, C.W., and Warburton, J. (1985). Generalizing treatment effects of functional family therapy: Three replications. American Journal of Family Therapy, 13(3), 16–26.
  20. Alexander, J.F., Pugh, C., Parsons, B.V., and Sexton, T.L. (2000). Functional family therapy. In D.S. Elliott (Ed.) Blueprints for Violence Prevention (book 3, 2nd ed.). Boulder: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado.
  21. Chamberlain, P. (2003). Treating Chronic Juvenile Offenders: Advances Made Through the Oregon Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care Model. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  22. Eddy, J.M., Whaley, R.B., and Chamberlain, P. (2004). The prevention of violent behavior by chronic and serious male juvenile offenders: A 2-year follow-up of a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 12(1), 2–8.
  23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018). Mental Health.
  24. Shufelt, J. & Cocozza, J. (2006). Youth with mental health disorders in the juvenile justice system: Results from a multi-state, multi-system prevalence study. (Research and Program Brief). Delmar, NY: National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice.
  25. Teplin, L., Abram, K., Washburn, J., Welty, L., Hirschfield, J., & Duncan, M. (2013). The Northwestern Juvenile Project: Overview. OJJDP Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
  26. Wasserman, G., McReynolds, L., Schwalbe, C., Keating, J., & Jones. S. (2010). Psychiatric disorder, co-morbidity, and suicidal behavior in juvenile justice youth. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(12), 1361–1376.
  27. World Health Organization (WHO) (2019). Mental Disorders.
  28. Espinosa, E. & Skowyra, K. (2015) Diverting Youth at Probation Intake: The Front-End Diversion Initiative. National Center for Mental Health And Juvenile Justice. Research and Program Brief V2.1.
  29. Henggeler, S. W., Cunningham, P. B., Rowland, D., & Schoenwald, S. K. (2012). Contingency management for adolescent substance abuse: A practitioner’s guide. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
  30. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). (2016). Juvenile Drug Treatment Court Guidelines. Washington, DC: Author.
  31. NCJFCJ. (2019). Practical Tips to Help Juvenile Drug Treatment Court Teams Implement the JDTC Guidelines. Reno, NV: the National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges.
  32. Coalition for Juvenile Justice. (2001). Abandoned in the Back Row: New Lessons in Education and Delinquency Prevention. Washington, DC: Coalition for Juvenile Justice.
  33. Howell, K.W. & Wolford, B.I. (2002). Corrections and juvenile justice: Current education practice for youth with learning and other disabilities. Monograph Series on Education, Disability and Juvenile Justice. College Park, MD: National Center on Education, Disability and Juvenile Justice.
  34. Torbet, P. Griffin, P. (2002) Desktop guide to good juvenile probation practice. Washington DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
  35. Wiig, J.K. & Tuell, J.A. (2013). Guidebook for juvenile justice and child welfare system coordination and integration.
  36. Snyder, H.N. (2001). Epidemiology of official offending. In R. Loeber & D. Farrington (Eds.), Child delinquents: Development, intervention, and service needs (pp. 25–46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  37. Wiig, J.K. & Tuell, J.A. (2013). Guidebook for juvenile justice and child welfare system coordination and integration.
  38. NJJN (National Juvenile Justice Network). 2016. Snapshot: Dual-Status Youth and Federal Initiatives. Washington, DC: NJJN.
  39. Herz, Denise & Dierkhising, Carly.  2019. OJJDP Dual System Youth Design Study:  Summary of Findings and Recommendations for Pursuing a National Estimate of Dual System Youth. Final Technical Report. U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Washington, D.C.
  40. Siegel, G.& Lord, R.  2004. When Systems Collide: Improving Court Practices and Programs in Dual Jurisdiction Cases. Technical Assistance Bulletin to the Juvenile Court. NCJJ and OJJDP.
  41. Herz, Denise & Dierkhising, Carly.  2019. OJJDP Dual System Youth Design Study:  Summary of Findings and Recommendations for Pursuing a National Estimate of Dual System Youth. Final Technical Report. U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Washington, D.C.
  42. Annie E. Casey Foundation. 2013. Case Planning for Healthy Development. St. Louis, MO: Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative.
  43. Halemba, G. (2015). Placement and trajectories of youth with active juvenile court dependency cases.
  44. National Center for Juvenile Justice (2015). When systems collaborate: How three jurisdictions improved their handling of dual-status cases.
  45. Siegel, G.& Lord, R.  2004. When Systems Collide: Improving Court Practices and Programs in Dual Jurisdiction Cases. Technical Assistance Bulletin to the Juvenile Court. NCJJ and OJJDP.
  46. Siegel, G.& Lord, R.  2004. When Systems Collide: Improving Court Practices and Programs in Dual Jurisdiction Cases. Technical Assistance Bulletin to the Juvenile Court. NCJJ and OJJDP.
  47. Enos, Richard, and Steven Southern. 1996. Correctional Case Management. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Co.
  48. Harvell, S., Love, H., Pelletier, E. & Warnberg, C. (2018). Bridging research and practice in juvenile probation: Rethinking strategies to promote long-term change.
  49. Healey, K. M. 1999. Case Management in the Criminal Justice System. Research in Action. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
  50. Wright, E., Spohn, R., & Chenane, J.  2017. Evaluation of the Crossover Youth Practice Model (Youth Impact!). Nebraska Center for Justice Research. Omaha, NE.
  51. Herz, Denise & Dierkhising, Carly.  2019. OJJDP Dual System Youth Design Study: Summary of Findings and Recommendations for Pursuing a National Estimate of Dual System Youth. Final Technical Report. U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Washington, D.C.
  52. Coalition for Juvenile Justice (2016). Youth homelessness and juvenile justice: Opportunities for collaboration and impact. Issue Brief Volume 1, Issue, 1.
  53. Whitbeck, L.B. & Simons, R.R.L. (1993). A comparison of adaptive strategies and patterns of victimization among homeless adolescents and adults. Violence and Victims, 8(2), 135–152.
  54. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges (2017). Resolution addressing the needs of homeless youth and families in juvenile and family courts.
  55. Altschuler, D.M. & Brash, R. (2004). Adolescent and teenage offenders confronting the challenges and opportunities of reentry. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 2(1), 72–87.
  56. Coalition for Juvenile Justice (2016). Youth homelessness and juvenile justice: Opportunities for collaboration and impact. Issue Brief Volume 1, Issue, 1.
  57. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges (2017). Resolution addressing the needs of homeless youth and families in juvenile and family courts.
  58. Coalition for Juvenile Justice & National Network for Youth (n.d.). Homeless and runaway youth in the juvenile justice system.
  59. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges (2017). Resolution addressing the needs of homeless youth and families in juvenile and family courts.
  60. Youth.gov (n.d.). Federal Programs.
  61. Irvine and Canfield (2017). Reflections on New National Data on LGBQ/GNCT Youth In the Justice System. LGBTQ Policy Journal at the Harvard Kennedy School, 2017, Volume VII, 2016–17.
  62. The Fenway Institute (2014). Emerging Best Practices for the Management and Treatment of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Questioning, and Intersex Youth in Juvenile Justice Settings.
  63. Burwick, A., Oddo, V., Durso, L., Friend, D., Gates, G. (2014). Identifying and Serving LGBTQ Youth: Case Studies of Runaway and Homeless Youth Program Grantees.
  64. 22 USC Ch. 78 §7101.
  65. 22 USC Ch. 78 §7102.
  66. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2009). Human trafficking into and within the United States: A review of literature.
  67. National Mentoring Partnership (2017). The restorative power of mentoring for sexually exploited youth. [webinar].
  68. Smith, L.A., Vardaman, S.H., Snow, M.A. (2009). The National Report on Domestic M Minor Sex Trafficking: America’s Prostituted Children. Shared Hope International. (Landing page).
  69. Burke, M., McCauley, H.L., Rackow, A., Orsini, B., & Simunovic, B. (2015). Implementing a coordinated care model for sex trafficked minors in smaller cities. Journal of Applied Research on Children, 6(1).
  70. Caliber (2007). Evaluation of comprehensive services for victims of human trafficking: Key findings and lessons learned (Document No. 218777).
  71. Caliber (2007). Evaluation of comprehensive services for victims of human trafficking: Key findings and lessons learned (Document No. 218777).
  72. Youth.gov (n.d.). Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors.
  73. Caliber (2007). Evaluation of comprehensive services for victims of human trafficking: Key findings and lessons learned (Document No. 218777).
  74. Caliber (2007). Evaluation of comprehensive services for victims of human trafficking: Key findings and lessons learned (Document No. 218777).
  75. Caliber (2007). Evaluation of comprehensive services for victims of human trafficking: Key findings and lessons learned (Document No. 218777).
  76. Altschuler, D., Stangler, G., Berkley, K. & Burton, L. (2009). Supporting youth in transition to adulthood: Lessons learned from child welfare and juvenile justice.
  77. Muller-Ravett, S. & Valentine, E.J. (2012). After foster care and juvenile justice.
  78. Altschuler, D., Stangler, G., Berkley, K. & Burton, L. (2009). Supporting youth in transition to adulthood: Lessons learned from child welfare and juvenile justice.
  79. Altschuler, D., Stangler, G., Berkley, K. & Burton, L. (2009). Supporting youth in transition to adulthood: Lessons learned from child welfare and juvenile justice.
  80. Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., & Chaffin, M. (2009). Juveniles who commit sex offenses against minors. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
  81. Juvenile Law Center (2019). Juvenile sex offender registry (SORNA).
  82. Przybylski, R. & Lobanov-Rostovsky, C. (2015). Chapter 1: Unique considerations regarding juveniles who commit sexual offenses. In The Office of Justice Program’s Sex Offender Management Assessment and Planning Initiative.
  83. Justice Policy Institute (2009). Youth who commit sex offenses, facts and fiction.
  84. Justice Policy Institute (2009). Youth who commit sex offenses, facts and fiction.
  85. Lobanov-Rostovsky, C. (2015). Chapter 3: Recidivism of juveniles who commit sexual offenses. In The Office of Justice Program’s Sex Offender Management Initiative.
  86. Caldwell, M.F. (2016). Quantifying the decline in juvenile sexual recidivism rates. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 22(4), 414–426.
  87. Turner, J. (2017). Youth who commit sexual offenses: Tensions between public perception, legislative barriers, and research findings. Portland State University’s University Honors Theses.
  88. Yoder, J.R. (2014). Service approaches for youths who commit sexual crimes: A call for family-oriented models. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 11(4), 360–372.
  89. Dopp, A., Borduin, C., & Brown, C. (2015). Evidence-based treatments for juvenile sexual offenders: Review and recommendations. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 7(4), 223–236.
  90. Russell, K.N. & Marsh, S.C. (2018). When juveniles commit sexual offenses: Considerations and recommendations for judges. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 69(2), 37–48.
  91. Turner, J. (2017). Youth who commit sexual offenses: Tensions between public perception, legislative barriers, and research findings. Portland State University’s University Honors Theses.
  92. Russell, K.N. & Marsh, S.C. (2018). When juveniles commit sexual offenses: Considerations and recommendations for judges. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 69(2), 37–48.
  93. Justice Policy Institute (2009). Youth who commit sex offenses, facts and fiction.
  94. Juvenile Law Center (2019). Juvenile sex offender registry (SORNA).
  95. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges (2019). Resolution regarding sex offender registration requirements for youth younger than age 18.
  96. Pittman, N. and Parker, A. (2013). Raised on the Registry: The irreparable harm of placing children on sex offender registries in the U.S. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch.
  97. Russell, K.N. & Marsh, S.C. (2018). When juveniles commit sexual offenses: Considerations and recommendations for judges. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 69(2), 37–48.
  98. Turner, J. (2017). Youth who commit sexual offenses: Tensions between public perception, legislative barriers, and research findings. Portland State University’s University Honors Theses.
  99. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges (2019). Resolution regarding sex offender registration requirements for youth younger than age 18.
  100. Yoder, J.R. (2014). Service approaches for youths who commit sexual crimes: A call for family-oriented models. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 11(4), 360–372.
  101. National Juvenile Defender Center (2017). Juvenile Defender’s Guide to Immigration Issues in Juvenile Proceedings.
  102. National Juvenile Defender Center (2017). Juvenile Defender’s Guide to Immigration Issues in Juvenile Proceedings.
  103. Annie E. Casey Foundation (2018). Noncitizen youth in the juvenile justice system 2018 update: A guide to detention reform.
  104. Development Services Group, Inc. 2016. Tribal Youth in the youth Justice System. Literature review. Washington, D.C.: Office of Youth Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Prepared by Development Services Group, Inc., under cooperative agreement number 2013–JF–FX–K002.
  105. Creel, B.L. (2013). The right to counsel for Indians accuses of crime: A tribal and congressional imperative. Michigan Journal of Race and Law, 18(2), 317–361.
  106. Development Services Group, Inc. 2016. Tribal Youth in the youth Justice System. Literature review. Washington, D.C.: Office of Youth Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Prepared by Development Services Group, Inc., under cooperative agreement number 2013–JF–FX–K002.
  107. Development Services Group, Inc. 2016. Tribal Youth in the youth Justice System. Literature review. Washington, D.C.: Office of Youth Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Prepared by Development Services Group, Inc., under cooperative agreement number 2013–JF–FX–K002.
  108. Cobb, K.A. (2011). A desktop guide for tribal probation personnel: The screening and assessment process.
  109. Cobb, K.A. (2011). A desktop guide for tribal probation personnel: The screening and assessment process.

Case management